1st Kokturk Khaganate: Establishment, Rise and Fall

The 1st Kokturks or Köktürks were a Turkic state of ancient Central Asia. Known in medieval Chinese sources as Tujue, the Kokturks under the leadership of Bumin Qagan (d. 552) and his sons succeeded the Xiongnu as the main Turkic power in the region and took hold of the lucrative Silk Road trade during the sixth-century. The Kokturk rulers originated from the Ashina tribe, an Altaic tribe that lived in the northern corner of the area presently called Xinjiang. Under their leadership, the Kokturks rapidly expanded to rule huge territories in north-western China, North Asia, and Eastern Europe (as far west as Crimea). They were the first Turkic tribe known to use the name "Turk'' as a political name. At their height, the Kokturks controlled a colossal area stretching from Eastern Europe all the way across northern China. Their Khaganate made contact with many cultures including Persia, and facilitated the movement of cultural concepts from one area to another. Their religion, Tengriism, a form of shamanism centred on a celestial deity, Tengri, includes elements that resemble concepts of Confucian and Hindu thought.

The Turks' rise to power began in 546 when Bumin Khan (d. 552) made a pre-emptive strike against the Uyghur and Tiele tribes who were planning a revolt against their rulers, the Rouran. He expected to be rewarded with marriage to a Rouran princess, and when his hopes were disappointed Bumin Khan decided to be allied with the Wei state against Rouran, their fellow enemy. In 552, Bumin defeated the last Rouran Khan, Yujiulü Anagui. He also overpowered the Yenisei Kyrgyz and the Khitans of Western Manchuria, was formally recognized by China, and married the princess of the Wei Changle.

This first Kokturk Empire split in two after the death of the fourth Qagan, Taspar Khan (ca. 584), the third son of Bumin Khan and Wei Changle. Unlike his father and older brothers, he embraced Chinese culture and was converted to Buddhism by the Qi monk Huilin, for whom he built a pagoda. Taspar's death created a dynastic crisis in the Khaganate. Taspar had bequeathed the title Qagan to Talopien, the son of his elder brother Muhan Khan. His bequest ran contrary to the traditional system of inheritance which demanded the throne to be passed to the son of the eldest brother, Ishbara. The high council rejected the legality of Taspar's will and appointed Ishbara as the next khagan before four rival khans claimed the title of qagan. They were successfully played off against each other by the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. Seizing the opportunity against a weakened Kokturk Khaganate, Uyghurs also fought against the Kokturks and took control of the Mongolian Highlands in 744, allied with the Tang dynasty.

This crisis ultimately resulted in the civil war of 581-603, which marked the beginning of a long decline and subjugation of the Kokturks by the Tangs. The most serious contender was the Western Khan, Istemi Khan’s son Tardu, a violent and ambitious man who had already declared himself independent from the so-called Qagan after his father's death. He claimed himself to be the actual worthy Qagan, led an army to the east to claim the seat of imperial power, Otuken, and almost succeeded in reuniting the Kokturk Empire.

Tardu attacked the Sui capital Changan demanding Emperor Yang to end his interference in the civil war. In retaliation, Chinese diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu's vassal tribes, which led to Tardu’s death and the end of his reign in 603.